Alwaleed Bin Talal’s Leadership Essay Example for Free

Alwaleed Bin Talal’s Leadership Essay Prince Alwaleed bin Talal is one of the world’s wealthiest investor and businessman. He has been able to gain connection in politics through entrepreneurship and international investments as an entrepreneur. He is a citizen of Lebanon and a member of the royal family, House of Saudi, in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Though not a member of the executive charged with ruling, he usually gets involved in politics of Lebanon for instance in the case of President Emile Lahoud against claims assassinating Lebanese billionaire Rafik Hariri and usually criticizes both local and international political issues in the media. He has so far been unsuccessful in his efforts to lead the Lebanese Sunni community. During Alwaleed’s early ages, his Father Prince Talal Abd al-Aziz, a known activist and modernizer, actively engaged in matters concerning the political issues that existed in the traditional governing system in Saudi Arabia in the early 1960s. He opposed Modern pan-Arabism that was led by the then leader of the United Arab Repulic, Jamal Gamal Abdel Nasser, which resulted to the suspension of his passport. He was forced to seek exile in Egypt. During this period, Alwaleed lived with his mother, Princess Muna al-Sulh who was the daughter of Riyadh al- Sulh, the first Prime Minister of the Independent Lebanon. In his early education, he attended elementary and middle schools in Beirut and returned to Lebanon in 1973 to attend King Abdul Aziz Military Academy to gain more discipline skills. He graduated with a Bachelor of Science Degree in Business administration from Menlo College California in 1979 and later enrolled for a masters Degree in Political Science from Syracuse University (Khan 2005). He rose to international fame in the early 1990s by purchasing a substantial amount of Citicorp shares when then firm was undergoing financial difficulties. He is an established investor and owns a chain of investments worldwide in the major industries such as banking, building and construction companies, telecommunications, broadcasting and media, entertainment, hospitality and involvement in charitable activities across many regions of the world. He also owns a lot of luxurious assets (Khan 2005). According to Machiavelli (2005) leadership qualities must be practical and not ideological in their application. In chapter 15 of The Prince, that leadership quality should be determined through consideration of personality traits, character and how a person conducts himself. A successful ruler must know when, where and in what way an upright person will act when confronted with different situations. Alwaleed has been able to demonstrate all these leadership qualities which are evident in the different criteria’s he employed in his investment activities throughout his life. He invested in shares of America’s Citicorp at the time when every investor was pulling out their capital from the firm and at a time when it neared its collapse due to bankruptcy, a decision that elicited mixed reactions across the world. Machiavelli talks of qualities that a leader must posses on those things which politicians or Princes must do that might either be praised or blamed in the end. He clearly differentiates the two categories in which a leader must apply specific ideologies. Machiavelli identifies the world that we live in as a kind of world of forms and which contains imperfect alternatives that are required in the world of ideas. Alwaleed seemed to recognize the world of ideas and did things that other people in the world of forms thought that they were impossible to happen. Upon his return after completion of his Master’s degree, he invested in the banking sector by purchasing shares in the United Saudi Commercial Bank. This move enabled the bank to gain enormous returns in terms of market value and also enabled the Bank to merge with Saudi Cairo Bank. His fortunes increased immensely through these risky but strategic business ventures. These elicited admirations from financial strategists across Asia and other parts of the world. Economic observers in the Saudi Kingdom and from other parts of the globe recognized his efforts and Alwaleed was thus chosen by the King as an advisor on economic matters. This enabled him improve on his unique strategic approaches to expansion of his business empire (Khan 2005). Â  Alwaleed’s character has been influenced through his grand father King Abd al-Aziz and the first prime minister of independent Lebanon who were all honest, upright and generous in their actions. They got a lot of respect and loyalty from the entire kingdom. All these characters can be displayed through his successful ventures and the ways in which he related to the people. His sudden amassment of wealth in a short period of time has led certain institutions to question the source of his wealth. According to the Economist online, Alwaleed is suspected to be a front man of other investors in the Saudi Arabian kingdom. All his sources of income are questioned and an account of his possible worth is calculated and the conclusion is that the source of his wealth is unquestionable because his business could not be in a position to accumulate such volume of wealth in a short period of time. Machiavelli’s leadership principle requires that a leader must engage in activities that may seem inappropriate, eliciting malicious interests and those that will require him to commit unethical ethics so long as it leads him to obtain success and power. What matters is the end result, the means doesn’t apply. Alwaleed was able to achieve success and power irrespective of the means he employed to achieve his success. His experience from the risky venture has enabled him to acquire riches and build business empires in addition to gaining international respect and recognition through investing in long-term projects (Machiavelli 17). Machiavelli on chapter 13 and 14 in the Online Literature Library the character of a Prince on matters concerning mercenaries and armies is discussed. They should be loyal to the ruler in fighting for the battle. In chapter 14, Machiavelli advises the prince to focus on the war and avoid other issues that pertains military matters. He should gain knowledge to enable him to maintain power stronghold throughout the battle. Prince Alwaleed was prepared in military matters after having attended King Abdul Aziz Military Academy and was prepared to lead incase he found his chance to the throne. He was therefore armed to be safe lest he is threatened by opposing forces to his power. This enabled him to gain trust from the King and thus he found a position in the cabinet and became the Kings Economic advisor. Bridging the East and Western Worlds Alwaleed fame is recognized internationally through his involvement in bridging the Arab world and the Western worlds. He has been involved in Islamic studies programs across Universities in the United States and other parts of the Globe. According to Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Islamic Studies Program at Harvard University, prince Alwaleed is committed to the fostering the importance of peace and tolerance. They assert that the best way to achieve this is through the bridging of the understanding between the East and the West. He is also committed in making the world a better place. He is the champion representative of UNESCO and also supports charities for children. Â  He engages in cultural activities aimed at promoting mutual understanding. The prince also has funded an educational centre at Georgetown University that aims at improving understanding between Islamic and Christian religions. Other initiatives include cross cultural educational institutions in Europe, Africa and the Middle-East. This shows a connection with the qualities of a leader cited by Machiavelli. On generosity and miserliness, a leader is supposed to spend excess amounts of his fortune on things that will improve or heighten his publicity but by doing so keep in mind the consequences that might befall him in the event that his fortune dwindles (Machiavelli 14). Chapter 18 tells the things that a politician must do which concerns his faith. Alwaleed has been able to extend his religion to the western world through funding foundations that touch on his Islamic religion. In this chapter Machiavelli asserts that private morality should prevail over public life and in order to be successful, praise must come from other human beings even if it means doing things are wrong in different perspectives. Rulers must therefore be generous in utilizing their wealth and appear tough on running their businesses even if it means using cruelty. He has stood strong on his word of Bridging the east and west and has stood strong in his faith.

Implementing and Measuring Effective Organizational Training

Implementing and Measuring Effective Organizational Training Training and development programs have been found to be essential to organizational effectiveness. However, a training program that cannot demonstrate improved organizational effectiveness is a waste of valuable time and money. This paper reviews the literature concerning critical elements of an effective organizational training program. Practical methods are presented in the areas of planning, implementation, and evaluation. Specific guidelines for developing an organizational analysis and training needs assessment are provided for consideration in the planning phase. Guidelines for providing training objectives, a favorable training and learning environment, effective training techniques, and strategies that ensure effective transfer of training are provided for consideration in the implementation phase. Recommendations for thorough training evaluation procedures are provided for consideration in the evaluation phase. Implementing and Measuring Effective Organizational Training and Development Organizations are composed of people with varying knowledge, abilities, skills, attitudes, and social behaviors that are utilized to move the organization towards its mission and goals. In order for organizations to improve and grow, the people who make up the organization must also improve and grow. Knowledge, skills, and attitudes must be developed in order to maintain a workforce that remains competitive in todays marketplace (Cascio Aguinis, 2005). Training and development programs have been found to produce positive results in industrial development and organizational performance and have been shown to produce an increase of employee productivity, wages, and employment longevity (Huselid, 1995; Colarelli and Montei, 1996; Kitching and Blackburn, 2002; van Eerde, Tang, Talbot 2008). Organizations that provide ongoing opportunities for employee development and growth place themselves at a distinct competitive advantage over those that do not. They recognize that training is a necessary component of corporate culture, where commitment to training and development is shared from the top down, and necessary time and funds are invested as needed. They ensure that training is linked to organizational objectives and strategies, and is designed to positively affect the companys bottom line. Continuous feedback is provided through structured quality improvement practices, and the organization remains flexible to restructure systems that improve performance (Cascio Aguinis, 2005). Training within an organization costs valuable time and money. Billions of dollars are spent by organizations each year in formal and informal training programs. Like everything else in business, it is essential to develop an organizational training and development program that provides the grea test possible return on investment (Cekada, 2010). This paper will present a review of the literature to explore three phases of an effective organizational training and development program: the planning phase, the implementation phase, and the evaluation phase. The planning phase includes completing an organizational analysis, task analysis, and a person analysis, and utilizing a training needs assessment to determine specific training needs that are in sync with the organizations mission, goals, and cost constraints. The implementation phase includes the design of the training program that will most effectively meet the needs assessed. The evaluation phase includes the development of criteria and use of comprehensive evaluation models to determine the trainings validity and effectiveness. Phase One: The Planning Phase Training Utility Training utility refers to the benefit that the training program has on organizational effectiveness. Training has been shown to be beneficial to an organization. However, if what is trained does not improve organizational effectiveness, it becomes at best a poor investment and at worst detrimental to progress. A training program is beneficial to the organization to the extent that it meets the assessed needs of the organization (van Eerde, Tang, Talbot 2008). Organization-Task-Person-Demographic and Values Analysis The first task of an effective organizational training program is to determine the specific needs of the organization. A comprehensive analysis of organizational systems and their workforce is necessary to determine relevant training needs and develop a training system to meet those needs (van Eerde, Tang, Talbot 2008). Morano (1973) recommends indentifying and surveying key leaders in each area who are as he describes are in the best position to know what training is needed most in their prospective areas. Morano goes on to suggest conducting a manpower analysis and an organizational analysis to determine needs that could be met through training. Although Moranos recommendations are broad scoped, he grasped the importance of conducting a thorough analysis of what is needed and how those needs could be met through training rather than simply providing training for trainings sake (Morano, 1973). The core model for assessing training needs has not changed much since McGehee and Thayer (1961) developed their Organization-Task-Person framework. The organizational analysis is designed to determine how training personnel can help the organization reach its goals and fulfill its mission (McClelland, 1993). Two major themes of the organizational analysis are linking training to corporate strategy and maintaining the workforces technical relevance (Latham, 1988). The task analysis determines what personnel must learn in order to execute their job well, and the person analysis determines who will need training and for what reason (van Eerde, Tang, Talbot 2008). The emphasis of a task analysis should also be on what is required by the employee in the future to be effective. In addition to the organizational-task-person analysis, Latham recommends performing a demographic analysis to determine the needs of specific subgroups to include age, gender, and management levels (Latham, 1988) . Prior to evaluating organizational strategies such as company philosophy, mission statements, objectives, strengths and weaknesses, organizational design, and programs that implement the strategies, OReilly and Pfeffer (2000) recommend beginning with defining the organizations basic principles and values. The next step is to evaluate management practices to determine the extent that those principles and values are modeled and reflected throughout the organization. Practices that do not embrace these basic principles and values are changed or discarded. This process helps to align the companys objectives with its basic principles and values as well as with the emotional and intellectual behavior of its employees in a way that can be used on a day-to-day basis (OReilly III Pfeffer 2000). Training Needs Assessment A needs assessment is a structured way to determine organizational needs that can be met through training. The function of the training needs assessment is to determine why training is needed, what exactly should be trained, and who should receive it in a way that creates the greatest benefit for the organization. One of the purposes of a training needs assessment is to ensure that the training process actually is designed to meet organizational goals and needs that are assessed so that training is most likely to increase the probability of organizational performance (van Eerde, Tang, Talbot 2008). A training needs assessment is necessary to define goals, determine who will make up the assessment group, determine resources and financial commitment needed, review and recommend the most effective assessment methods and tools, determine time frames, schedule and implement assessment procedures, gather and analyze feedback, determine conclusions, and present findings and recommendations to the organizational leaders (McClelland, 1993). It is a structured and thorough way of determining organizational training needs. A good training needs assessment is the first step in creating an effective training program. A training needs assessment will clarify organizational goals and needs, stimulate creative thinking, formulate effective training strategies within budgetary constraints, provide increased management and participant commitment, and illuminate the most effective methods for determining and providing the training and development needed (Cekada, 2010). An effective needs assessme nt may also identify problems that may not be solved through training but instead require adjustments to policies, procedures, or practices (Brown, 2002). An effective training program is not one that provides the most training hours but one that is aligned with the organizations needs as defined by a thorough training needs assessment (van Eerde, Tang, Talbot 2008). Data collection can be accomplished through a variety of methods. Surveys and questionnaires are inexpensive, can be completed in a short time frame, and are easy to summarize. Interviews can reveal attitudes, problems, and potential solutions. Performance appraisals can identify skill deficiencies and training needs. Observations can provide data in vivo without interrupting the workflow. Tests can assist in determining deficiencies in knowledge or skills and are easily quantifiable and reportable. Assessment centers can assist in determining management training needs. Focus or discussion groups can increase participant interaction and commitment to change. Document reviews can help determine needs and can easily be collected and analyzed. Advisory committees can utilize key players to provide inside information and needs (Brown, 2002). Teams and supervisors can be utilized to provide ongoing data collection and submit results on a regular basis to HR for training recommendations (v an Eerde, Tang, Talbot 2008). Phase Two: Training and Development Create Training Objectives and Sequencing Upon the completion of a thorough training needs assessment, the identified needs can be translated into clear behavioral training objectives. A key to successful training involves creating training objectives that guide the training process and specify measures that accurately evaluate results. Training objectives should clearly describe the desired behavior to be learned, the context in which the behaviors should occur, and the behavioral criteria that can be observed and measured upon completion of the training. Objectives should be listed in sequence as they are needed on the job or by importance. Reasons for sequencing should be made clear to the learner at the beginning of training (McConnell, 2003). In other words, if a particular task requires several sub-tasks to complete, it is important to sequence learning objectives for each sub-task first before working on the overall task (Cascio Aguinis 2005). Create an Effective Training and Learning Environment With the development of internet and intranet technologies, computer-based instruction has provided an alternative to the traditional brick-and-mortar classroom instruction. Most companies today use the Internet to provide various levels of employee training. In a study of use of the Internet for organizational training, it was found that learners in blended learning environments that involved on-line and face to face interactions had more control over where and when they engaged in the learning process and had a wider variety of learning tools. As a result, students were more motivated to learn, and achieved higher scores over those in a traditional face-to-face classroom (Klein, Noe, Chongwei, 2006). Virtual team training is relatively new and has not demonstrated the same success. In fact only 7% of respondents in a survey of over 400 human resource professionals reported current virtual team member and leader training to be very or extremely effective. More effective training is needed to provide skills necessary to select and use appropriate communications technologies, and to lead and manage virtual teams (Rosen, Furst, Blackburn, 2006). However, whether training is conducted in a traditional classroom, on the internet, or on the job, certain principles should be in place to ensure a productive learning environment. For instance, trainees should have a clear understanding of the training objectives and the expected outcomes. Training content should be meaningful and relevant to the job currently being performed. Trainees should be provided a variety of materials that stimulate various learning modalities. A sufficient amount of practice must be provided. Trainees should receive and be able to provide feedback on what is being learned, and should be able to observe and interact with other trainees (Noe Coquitt, 2002). Others principles include providing for trainees with diverse skill levels, ensuring commitment and buy-in to training on all levels of management, and utilizing commitment strategies to increase participant buy-in and motivation (Tall Hall, 1998). Utilize Effective Training Techniques A multitude of training methods or techniques exist and those chosen should be based upon the training needs assessment. Examples of training methods include group training, team training, coaching, mentoring, self-paced learning, e-learning, computer-assisted learning, distance learning, self-study, simulations, lectures, job shadowing, job rotation, and behavioral modeling. Group training occurs when three or more employees are engaged in learning common objectives. Many organizations provide group training to review HR policies and procedures and safety practices. Team training is comprised of members of a particular team with objectives on how to effectively work together as a team in order to fulfill the teams objectives. Coaching is a training technique often used in on the job training and is usually more individualized to the employee. Mentoring occurs when more experienced employees train newcomers to adapt to the organizations culture or environment. Self-paced learning is comprised of self-contained units of instruction that the employee can review and complete at their own pace. Self-paced learning can also be computerized so that employees can complete units of instruction at their own pace via their own computer. E-learning is on-line instruction that can be utilized individually or as a group. Distance learning is utilized to provide instruction from teachers who are in other parts of the world. Distance learning can occur through video conferencing, telephone conference calls, or internet access. Simulations are provided in a laboratory or on computer and simulate the actual job that is to be performed and are usually complete with immediate feedback mechanisms to enhance learning. Job assignments and rotations often occur on the job for a specified amount of time. The shadowed employee is able to learn various aspects and multiple components of the job by asking questions and observing effective modeling in vivo from the job shadower (McConnell , 2003). Both formal and informal on-the-job type training are important for training objectives to be acquired and generalized (Verhaest Omey, 2010). Behavior Modeling The behavior modeling technique based upon Banduras (1977) social learning theory is one of the most commonly used and researched learning methods used in organizational training. Behavior modeling involves providing clear behavioral objectives, using a model or models to demonstrate undesired and desired behaviors in various contexts, providing opportunities for learners to practice what was modeled, providing learners with clear feedback and reinforcement, and implementing procedures that ensure maximum transfer of what is learned to the actual job. A meta-analysis of 117 studies found that although declarative knowledge decreased over time, skills and behaviors remained the same and often increased with the use of behavior modeling. Skills increased when the full use of behavior modeling technique was utilized, learning points were emphasized, and training time was longer. Desired behavioral transfer to the job increased when both negative and positive models were utilized, behavi or modeling contexts were created and practice by trainees, both trainees and managers were trained in the behavior model process, and effective behavioral contingencies were applied in the actual work environment to reinforce learned behaviors (Taylor, Russ-Eft, Chan, 2005). Ensure Effective Transfer of Training Transfer of training refers to the how well an employee utilizes and generalizes what was learned in training to the actual job where it is needed (Cromwell Kolb, 2004). If behaviors learned in training cannot effectively be demonstrated and increased on the job where they are needed then the cost and time spent in training was wasted (Velada, Caetano, Michel, Lyons, Kavanagh, 2007). Cromwell Kolb (2004) found significant transfer of training occurs when training is supported throughout the organization, supervisors are supportive during and after the training process, and trainees participate in peer support networks for a period of at least one year. Lack of time, supervisory support, and managements commitment to the process are noted as barriers to an effective transfer of training (Cromwell Kolb, 2004). General considerations that will help to ensure transfer of training include: Organizational and management support of training and transfer of training. Training contexts should match job contexts. As much experiential training as possible should be provided. Supervisors should recognize and reward learned behaviors when demonstrated on the job. A peer support system should be developed that encourages and demonstrates support for the use of behaviors learned in training that are demonstrated on the job (Machin, 2002; Martin, 2010). Include self-management as part of training to reduce relapse of old ineffective behaviors. Self-management training involves setting personal goal, identifying attitudes and behaviors that interfere with or enhance success, creating plans to overcome interfering obstacles, developing self monitoring systems that provide observation of progress towards the plan, and the utilizing personal contingencies that reinforce effective behaviors, block ineffective behaviors, and increase motivation to utilize behaviors learned in training (Wexley Baldwin, 1986; Gist, Bavetta Stevens, 1990). Recognize that self-efficacy, self-management, and performance levels may drop significantly after training, but increase to the same levels after training about one year later. Allow at least one year to transpire before evaluating transfer of training effects (Cromwell Kolb, 2004; Vermeulen  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Admiraal, 2009). Phase Three: Evaluation Training evaluation should occur throughout the training process. Evaluation provides information necessary to adjust, or improve effective training elements, and eliminate ineffective elements of current programs. On a practical note, a successful evaluation design has the potential to justify the existence of an organizations training and development department (Tsang-Kai, 2010). A thorough training evaluation requires collecting and analyzing training data and results in a manner that will effectively instruct future training and development content and practices. Because this type of evaluation costs considerable time and money, many organizations revert to utilizing trainee responses from post training surveys. However, this is only one dimension of a thorough training evaluation and should not be used alone to determine training effectiveness. An effective training evaluation requires the establishment of controls, accurate methods of measurement, educated evaluators, statistical analysis, and clear evaluation criteria to determine the effectiveness of training transfer. A common problem associated with comprehensive training evaluations is that many organizations perceive them as being more theoretical than practical. In fact, one study showed that it is common for most companies to evaluate employee reactions. However, only half evaluated employee knowl edge, about a fourth evaluated the transfer of training to the workplace, and only a small percentage evaluated the actual impact of the training on the organization (Tsang-Kai, 2010). The Evaluation Design It is commonly held that training in and of itself does not guarantee improved productivity, satisfaction, longevity, or organizational effectiveness in the workplace. Effective transfer of new knowledge, skills, and attitudes requires a variety of structural contingencies to reinforce effective behaviors and practices and to prevent relapse of ineffective habits. Training evaluators must develop outcome criteria that will accurately forecast intended results and inform future training activities (Dionne, 1996). The evaluation design must attempt to determine the extent of change demonstrated in the level of performance that has occurred and to what extent that level of performance meets the organizational need. Standard outcomes of the study may require the use of formal experimental designs that measure statistical significance and effect size for example between an experimental and control group posttest means (Sackett Mullen, 1993). It is important to determine whether the requirements of the evaluation call for the measurement of change, the measurement of achievement, or both. Measuring change may be used to estimate the utility of training, provide evidence of training effectiveness, or demonstrate the monetary value of training by pairing past training with past success. The measurement of achievement involves comparing the efficacy of two different training programs to see which is more effective. If the training is only offered once, the program designers do their best to estimate the most effective approach given the budgetary and time constraints. If the training is offered repeatedly, the long term costs and constraints make comparative research more worthwhile. Finally, the evaluator who wishes to contribute to the global literature of understanding the training processes may wish to utilize a formal experimental design. Regardless of the design and methods of evaluating the training program, it is imp ortant that the evaluators sell organizational leaders on a thorough and useful evaluation of the training process (Sackett Mullen, 1993). Criteria for measuring training and job performance success One particular model that has endured with widespread popularity, perhaps because of its practical simplicity, is Kirkpatricks (1959) four level training evaluation criteria model. This model has been utilized by organizations as a guide for the evaluation of training programs since it was first introduced in the late fifties (Alliger Janak, 1989). Thirty years later Kirkpatrick (1996) maintains the value of his model, and continues to recommend his procedure for measuring the utility of the training program. Kirkpatricks model measures four levels of training: reaction, learning, behavior, and results. On the reaction level, the goal is to measure participants feelings about the training experience. By asking questions regarding participants reactions, the organization demonstrates that they are interested in the employees needs and are willing to do what it takes to meet those needs. Evaluating reactions to training provides a way to attend to participants motivation to learn. Fai lure to attend to motivation can easily create failure of learning, and thus failure of the training program. The second area to measure is learning. Did training create and/or increase the desired knowledge, skills, abilities, or change in attitudes? The third area to measure is behavior. Did the training create the desired change of behavior in the specific context of the work environment where it is needed? The final area to evaluate is the results. This is a measure of the effect that training had on the organization such as increased sales, higher productivity, improved quality, increased employee satisfaction, and decreased turnover. The evaluation process becomes more difficult at each level (Kirkpatrick, 1996). Some researchers have noted problems regarding unclear training evaluation criteria in Kirkpatricks model and recommend revision, while others argue for entirely different models. One concern is that the framework of the model is not based upon modern theories of learning. Another concern is that Kirkpatrick over simplistically treats multi-dimensional constructs such as trainee reactions as one dimensional. Further concerns exist regarding basic assumptions suggested by the level model. For instance it is assumed in the model that evaluation levels should be arranged in ascending order for maximum effectiveness. It is also assumed that each level is causally linked to the other, and that each of the levels is positively intercorrelated. However, despite these and other concerns, the model remains one of the most utilized approaches among practitioners and researchers. (Alliger Janak, 1989). A meta-analysis of 34 studies and 115 correlations demonstrated significant reliabilities between training criteria using an augmented framework for training criteria based on Kirpatricks model. Trainee reactions were shown to be important. However, simply liking training did not necessarily transfer to performing what was trained in the workforce. However, although positive reactions to training do not guarantee transfer, negative reactions have been shown to have a significant negative affect on the training department. Questions on utility appeared to provide the best indicators of training transfer, and attentiveness to content validity was shown to be important when developing criterion strategies to minimize the potential for misinterpreting criterion relationships (Alliger, Tannenbaum, Bennett, Traver Shotland, 1997). An alternative measurement model was developed by Kraiger (2002) to overcome the deficiencies of Kirkpatricks (1959) four level model (Kraiger,). This model is based upon Kraigers earlier theoretical model of learning, and addresses three distinct learning outcomes: cognitive, skill-based, and affective. According to Kraiger, cognitive outcomes should measure verbal knowledge, knowledge organization, and cognitive strategies. Skill-based outcomes should measure compilations of proceduralization, composition, and automaticity. Affective outcomes should measure attitudinal outcomes and motivational outcomes such as motivational disposition, self-efficacy, and goal setting (Kraiger, Ford, Salas, 1993). In his later developed evaluation model, Kraiger makes a clear distinction between evaluation targets and data collection methods. Evaluation targets include training content and design, changes in learners, and organizational payoffs. Targets and methods are linked to available measurement tools. Evaluation targets focus on the implementation of the training design, training delivery, and validity. Measurement tools include the use of advisory panels, established methodologies, judgments from experts, and course ratings. For changes in learners targets the focus of implementation is on specific cognitive, behavioral, and affective change. Measurement tools include written tests, work samples, interviews, and surveys. For organizational payoff targets the focus of implementation is results, performance, and transfer. Measurement tools include cost-benefit analysis, ratings, and surveys. Each of the three target areas of evaluation informs the other in an interactive feedback loop (Kr aiger, 2002). Analyzing the benefits and costs of training Organizational leaders may become concerned about training costs when there appears to be no increase in revenues or particularly when revenues appear to be declining. They may need to see that training programs are producing some sort of rate of return on their investment. In order to clearly demonstrate to administrators that the benefits of training outweigh the cost, it is important to include a cost analysis in the presentation of the training program evaluation (Clarke, 2002). The cost-benefit analysis is the most widely used method of calculating return on investment (ROI). Using this method, return on investment is calculated by dividing the monetary value of benefits incurred by training with the actual costs of training. If the ratio exceeds 1, then the benefits are shown to outweigh the costs of the training program. Another model used to calculate ROI subtracts the monetary costs of training from the monetary value of benefits incurred. In this method, the ROI increases proportionately to the increase in the difference between calculated benefits and costs of the training program. Some organizations recommend anywhere between a 20-40 percent ROI, while others suggest that training benefits should at least outperform the rate of inflation. The net present value (NPV) is yet another method to evaluate training investment. In this method, training benefits are assigned an expected rate of return. If the net benefits are positive after deducting training costs, the training is considered successful (Murray Efendioglu, 2007). A thorough cost analysis should seek to clearly demonstrate that the training program provides a net value to the organization in areas such as increased employee satisfaction and productivity, decreased employee turnover and recruitment costs, decreased penalties for compliance violations, and reduced insurance premiums (Clarke, 2002). Summary Training and development programs have been found to be essential to organizational effectiveness. However, a training program that cannot demonstrate improved organizational effectiveness is waste of valuable time and money. This paper has reviewed the literature concerning critical elements of an effective organizational training program that include thorough planning, implementation, and evaluation. The planning phase is designed to avoid training simply for trainings sake and to ensure that the training program meets the assessed needs of the organization. The planning phase should include a thorough analysis of the organization, tasks to be learned, people that need to learn them, important demographic concerns, and values. A thorough training needs assessment is a valuable tool to determine training needs through a systematic evaluation of each of these areas. The training and development phase is designed to create specific training objectives and sequential learning opportunities. It is important in this phase of development to create a favorable training and learning environment and utilize the most effective training techniques that will provide the maximum potential to transfer objectives into outcomes in the workplace where they are needed. Because training without transfer is a waste of time and money, the training development phase should design and implement strategies that will ensure the effective transfer of training. Training evaluation should occur throughout the training process. Evaluation provides information necessary to adjust, or improve effective training elements, eliminate ineffective elements of current programs, and justify the existence of an organizations training and development department. A thorough and systematic evaluation design is necessary to ensure that what was trained increased the effectiveness of the organization. The design should provide target measurements for training content and design, changes in learners, and organizational payoffs that analyze the benefits and costs of training. Further research is needed to provide more accurate, practical, and cost effective methods to measure organizational training and development programs.

Consumer impulsive buying behavior

Consumer impulsive buying behavior Abstract In this study, we investigate the relationship between sales promotion and consumer impulsive buying behavior in Retail Industry of Pakistan. More specifically, we investigate whether there is a positive relationship between sales promotion and consumer impulsive buying behavior or not? For this purpose we have conducted 80 Questionnaire from Metro, Macro and Hyper Star Located in Lahore, Pakistan for our research project. We have measured sales promotion by three dimensions that are (1) length of offer period, (2) incentives and (3) return policy while customer impulsive buying behavior by three dimensions that are (1) income level, (2) worth of product and (3) tendency to spend. We have used Questionnaire as a tool for the collection of data in order to prove our hypothesis. Afterwards we have applied the regression and correlation technique, which have given us the result that there is a positive relation between Sales Promotion and Impulsive Buying Behavior. In the end we discuss ed that our research goes in support of our literature review that we have conducted before starting our project. Keywords: Sales Promotion, Consumer Impulsive Buying Behavior INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW In this era of globalization, competition has become more intense than ever. Every marketing campaign tries to win the support of the consumers that the product of the organization is entailed to suffice them and is the best to meet their expectations. If the purpose is successfully attained the consumers acknowledge the product of the organization and colligates specific benefits to the product (Murphy Enis, 1985). Consumer routinely faces the decision problem of what product to purchase, from where to purchase and in what quantity to purchase. Moreover, the decision is complicated by consumer characteristics ( e.g., income, age, gender, purchase frequency etc) and by temporary price reductions for various products and by the fact that the size of the price reductions varies across deals. These price reduction (sales promotion) techniques can affect the decisions of different consumers differently. For example, price reduction might cause brands switching to one segment without any effect on purchase timing and quantity, while heartening another segment of brand-loyal consumers to buy quick and more of the product. Common sense and formal economic analysis suggests that a consumers decision on product and purchase quantity may depend on the size of the price reduction and the time until the next price reduction (Blatberget, 1978). Interest in the study of sales promotion is increasing due to the acceleration of promotional expenditures. Three-fourth of the marketing budget in most of the consumer product companies is for sales promotions. Sales promotions are a potential tool because it works on behavioral level and most of the sales promotion techniques directly impact the decision making process and thus purchase decision. Sales promotion is capable of shift in behavior because it transforms the price-value relationship that a product or service offers a buyer (Schultz, Petrison Robinson). pp 1- 6 Manufacturers are spending more money on sales promotion as compared to advertisement due to the quick and direct impact of sales promotions on sales volume (Blattberg, Briesch and Fox 1995). There are several reasons why advertising has become less effective. The growing diversity of the population of consumers makes it more difficult to reach a mass audience with a single message. Moreover, the cost of advertising media has grown faster than the rate of inflation, but its effectiveness has fallen as television channels, magazines, radio stations, and websites proliferate, and as consumers take control of their exposure to ads with remote control devices. It has become increasingly expensive and difficult to build brand awareness and brand loyalty. According to Kahn and McAllister (1997), it has almost become impossible to build brand awareness and brand loyalty by advertising. Furthermore, a result of the overwhelming product proliferation is that the distinctions between brands have become blurred. These (and other) developments have driven manufacturers and retailers marketing mix expenditures towards sales promotions. (e.g., Lal and Rao 1997, Bell and Lattin 1998) In vestigating the exact results from sales promotion expenditures on individual consumers buying behavior is the mainspring of our study. 1.2 Sales Promotions Sales promotions are action-focused marketing events whose purpose is to have a direct impact on the behavior of the firms customers. There are three major types of sales promotions: consumer promotions, retailer promotions, and trade promotions. Consumer promotions are promotions offered by manufacturers directly to consumers. Retailer promotions are promotions offered by retailers to consumers. Trade promotions are promotions offered by manufacturers to retailers or other trade entities (Blattberg and Neslin 1990). This thesis is focused on promotions offered to the consumer, therefore a combination of consumer and retailer promotions. Throughout the world, sales promotions offered to consumers are an integral part of the marketing mix for many consumer products. Marketing managers use price-oriented promotions, such as coupons, rebates, and price discounts to increase sales and market share, entice consumers to trial, and encourage them to switch brands or stores. Non-price promot ions such as sweepstakes, 7frequent user clubs, and premiums add excitement and value to brands and may increase. brand attractiveness. In addition, consumers like promotions. They provide utilitarian benefits such as monetary savings, increased quality (higher quality products become attainable), and convenience, as well as hedonistic benefits such as entertainment, exploration, and self-expression (Huff and Alden 1998, Chandon et al. 2000). Blattberg and Neslin (1990) stated that the influence of sales promotions could be exerted in many ways. The consumer can be influenced to change purchase timing or purchase quantity, switch brands, increase consumption of the product category, switch stores, or search for promotions. However, not all consumers are influenced in the same way. For example, some consumers might be influenced to switch brands but not change their purchase timing, while others might be influenced to change timing but not brands. Still others might be influenced in both ways. Blattberg and Neslin (1990) concluded that promotion response is therefore a multidimensional concept. Identification of the degree to which a certain consumer is influenced by a promotion? Figuring out, whether there are some consumers who respond to every sales promotion? Are there differences between households in the way they react to promotions, does one household show consistent brand switch behavior, whereas a second household shows consistent purchase acceleration behavior? These are questions we want to answer with this study. Retailers also want to know how planned decisions such as the product range is to be offered in their stores and how these planned decisions such as price promotions and special displays affect the likelihood of consumers adding impulse behavior to their sales. Research Questions With respect to the effects of sales promotions we have formulated one central research question. Under which conditions and in what way do sales promotions influence household purchase behavior? We have investigated the impact of sales promotions on purchase behavior at the individual household level. We agree with Blattberg and Neslin (1990) in the sense that promotion response can be exerted in many ways. There are so many factors that can influence a consumer promotion purchase behavior. 1.4 Scientific Contribution A considerable amount of research has been undertaken in an attempt to identify and understand consumer promotion response. Different operationalizations and measures of promotion response have been developed and applied. This abundance hampers comparison and makes the prospect of building a cumulative tradition for promotion response elusive. Furthermore, a large part of the empirical work is not grounded on consumer behavior theory. We provide an integrated framework that describes the effects of sales promotion on household purchase behavior applying insights from consumer behavior theories. Furthermore, measures are developed for household sales promotion response. We investigate whether the observed magnitudes of the promotion response variables can be explained by observable household characteristics (such as social class, available time, size and composition), product category characteristics (such as average price level, number of brands), and promotion environment variables (which promotion types were present). Furthermore, we will present an intertemporal decomposition of household promotion response to find out to what degree the different sales promotion reaction mechanisms are exhibited in household purchase behavior within and across categories. The intertemporal aspect means that besides effects during the promotion itself, also pre-and post-promotional effects are taken into account. The microscopic level of research offers the opportunity to study (in)consistencies in household purchase behavior within and across different product categories to make a statement about the concept of deal proneness. 1.5 Managerial Relevance The results and insights obtained concerning the promotion response will be used to infer conclusions about the effects of sales promotions. Do specific sales promotion types mainly lead to stockpiling behavior, therefore not really rewarding, or do some consumers really consume more (category expansion). What household characteristics and product category characteristics are important in explaining the effects of sales promotions? Are some categories more attractive to promote than others? The results on category expansion effects form an important indicator of retailer and manufacturer profitability. They could be used as a starting point for deriving estimates of these profitabilities, though that is outside the scope of this dissertation. Currently, everyday low pricing (EDLP) is appearing in managerial circles. The change from a promotion-intensive environment (the so-called high-low pricing) to an environment characterized by lower average prices and fewer promotions has interesting short- and long-run implications for brand choice, store choice, purchase acceleration, category expansion, and repeat purchasing. It is therefore interesting to know the percentage of households whose purchase behavior is influenced by promotions. Promotion shoppers could abandon EDLP stores and EDLP brands. Furthermore, incorporating demographic variables in household purchase behavior models is conceptually appealing and has numerous managerial benefits. Retailers and brand managers can assess demographic variations in demand and marketing mix response in order to implement micromarketing strategies (Neslin et al. 1994, Kalyanam and Putler 1997). For example, a retailer planning to locate a new outlet can get some sense of the differences in demand patters and price and promotion sensitivities in the new trading area in order to make initial stocking, inventory, pricing, and promotion decisions. SIGNIFICANCE RATIONALE Researches and techniques are continuously being added in the field of sales promotion (Lancaster Massingham). Many of the sales promotion researches described the impact of demographics on deal-prone consumers and explained the impact of their income, gender and ownership on their purchase patern (Bawa and Shoemaker 1987; Blattberg et al. 1978) and other researches explored personal traits such as coupon-proneness, value-consciousness or market mavenism (Feickand Price 1987; Inman, McAlister and Hoyer 1990; Lichtenstein, Netemeyer and Burton 1990, 1995; Mittal 1994). Influences of personal (self-image) and social characteristics on impulsive buying behavior has been explored (Dittmar, Beatie and Friese 1996) We acknowledge that consumer characteristics also influence impulse purchase decisions but our research is directed at factors over which retailers have control. Based on previous impulse research, we obtained measures of consumer characteristics that have been shown to influence impulsive buying behavior and included these variables in our research so potential space of relationship between the sales promotions and consumer impulse buying behavior exist. Keeping this gap in mind, our research contributes to defining the relationship between these two concepts. OBJECTIVES Our study has three general objectives. The first is to develop a conceptual model to describe the relationship between sales promotion and consumer impulse buying behavior. It also indicates how retailers can influence promotional activity and use information on consumer purchasing decision. The second objective is to conduct an empirical analysis of the model. These findings are expected to improve our understanding of how consumers react to price promotions. The third objective is to test hypothesis. These findings could be used to segment the market, for mailing coupons, for designing specific promotions. LITERATURE REVIEW A lot of research work have been done in the area of consumer behavior in which, its relationship is associated with the different aspects of marketing for example advertisement, quality of the product or services, pricing acceptability of the product, bundling and promotional frames were influencing the perceived value of the product, variety seeking and reinforcement behavior that resulted in purchase intention (Munger Dhruv, 2003; Joseph, 1999; Barbara Jagmohan, 1991; Joseph, Carl Terence, 1999; Aridhan, Imarn Robert, 1991; Donald, Nancy Richard, 1993; Charles Michael, 1982; Manohar Chi, 1992; Carl, kamel Douglas, 1998 ). Many a researches examining impulsive buying have used the terms Impulsive buying and Unplanned buying interchangeably (Kollat Wallet, 1969; Stern, 1962). Consumer statement that they had purchased those items, which they had, no intention of purchasing, prior to entering the store were generally conceptualized as impulsive buying. This definition of impulsive buying was one of the reasons for the researchers to investigate the issues related to shelving displays that facilitate purchasing. Impulsive buying behavior is a sudden compelling hedonically complex purchasing behavior in which the rapidity of the impulse purchase decision process predicts thoughtful deliberate consideration of information and choice alternative (Kacen Xu, 2001). Furthermore Charles and Michael (1982) examined marketing and financial implications of offering a discount to retail customers to encourage cash payment rather than credit card payment to increase buying behavior. Also in research study published by American Marketing Association of Aradhna, Imran and Robert (1991) explained the relationship of promotional activity with consumer perception comprehensively. The use of different sales promotion techniques varies substantially from one country to another. Promotions provoke two reactions in people .The first is an increase in consumption, i.e. more quantity of a product is acquired. The second is storage of the product for the future, i.e. the consumer acts anticipating his purchases. On the other hand, it is possible that consumers who do not buy the brand will want to acquire it because they are attracted by the sales promotion (Gupta, 1993). However, Brandweek (1994) found that some people who change brand due to a promotion change back to their favorite brand when buying that category of product later. It is necessary to highlight that the use of sales promotions to encourage brand and product purchase and consumption has to be sufficient. However it is necessary to stay alert, as the opposite effect could be provoked on certain occasions. This occurs when the consumer perceives that he is paying for unnecessary activities to enhance and position the product: this then provokes the opposite effect to the desired effect, i.e. the consumer will stop buying the promoted brand (Simonson, 1989). It is also possible that the consumer avoids buying the promoted brands so as not to have to justify his behavior to his peer group. There is also another reason why promotion may not obtain the expected results: the consumer may feel he is being manipulated and will punish the retailer by not purchasing the promoted brand or product (Simonson, 1989). Customer perceived value is thus the difference between the prospective customers evaluation of all benefits and all the costs of an offering and perceived alternatives. Total customers value is the perceived monetary value of the bundle of economic, functional and psychological benefits customers expect from a given market offering. (Marketing management 12 e, page no 141, Philip Kotler and Kelvine Lane Keller, 2005) Marketing analysts have shown that consumers can be characterized based on their brand purchasing patterns within a product class (Morrison, 1966). For example, some consumers purchase behavior can be characterized as reinforcing, i.e., a tendency to repurchase the last brand bought (Morrison, 1966; Jeuland, 1979), while other consumers purchase behavior can be characterized as variety-seeking, i.e., a tendency to shift away from the last brand purchased (Givon, 1984; Kalwani, 1992; Morrison, 1966). Several models of consumer response to promotions suggest that a current decision on brand and purchase quantity depends on the expected time until the next price reduction and the expected size of future reduction. Blattberg, Peacock, Robert and Sen (1978) define a purchase strategy as a general buying pattern which incorporates several dimensions of buying behavior such as brand loyalty, private brand proneness and deal proneness. Researchers studying the brand choice decision for example, Gupta (1988), Schneider and imran (1990) have found promotions to be associated with brand switching. It was found that all the individuals have built-in impulsive spending mechanisms: (1) Desire to buy, and (2) Ability to control urge of buying. When the former overtakes later then it results in impulsive spending (Hoch Lowenstein, 1991; Mischel Ayduk, 2004; Mischel Ebessen, 1970). Research findings suggest that emotions and feelings play a decisive role in purchasing, triggered by seeing the product or upon exposure to a well crafted promotional message. Such purchases ranges from small (chocolate, clothing, magazines) to substantially large (jewelry, vehicle, work of art) and usually (about 80 percent of the time) lead to problems such as financial difficulties, family disapproval, or feeling of guilt or disappointment. Moods also influence the impulsive buying behavior. Researchers found that that the respondents were of the opinion that the most frequently mentioned mood state for stimulating impulse purchase was pleasure followed by mood states care free and excited. Consumer believes that, impulsive buying helps in extending these feelings. Most of researchers findings are that positive moods facilitate impulsive buying, but a few researchers also found that negative moods also facilitate impulsive buying (Gardner Rook, 1987) Negative moods adversely aff ect self control, therefore, the individual fell prey to impulsive buying (Herman Polivy, 2004). Consumer in negative mood turns to purchasing with the hope that this would alleviate their unpleasant mood (Mick Demoss, 1990). Rook (1987) defined impulse buying as when a consumer experiences a sudden, often powerful and persistent urge to buy something immediately. We extend this definition slightly. Impulse buying is sudden and immediate purchase with no pre-shopping intentions either to buy the specific product category or to fulfill a specific buying task. The behavior occurs after experiencing an urge to buy and it tends to be spontaneous and without a lot of reflection (i.e., it is impulsive). It does not include the purchase of a simple reminder item, which is an item that is simply out-of-stock at home. Dramatic increases in personal disposable incomes and credit availability have made impulse buying in retail environments a prevalent consumer behavior (Dittmar, Beattie Friese 1996; Ferrell 1998). Impulse buying behavior is sudden and compelling (Bayley Nancarrow, 1998). Several researchers have reported that consumers do not view impulse purchasing as wrong; rather, consumers retrospectively convey a favorable evaluation of their behavior (Dittmar, Beattie Friese, 1996; Hausman, 2000; Rook, 1987). Other researchers have treated impulse buying as an individual difference variable with the expectation that it is likely to influence decision making across situations (Beatty Ferrell, 1998). Our research project is going to be investigating the impact of sales promotion on consumer impulse buying behavior because we have not found work done on this topic. Theoretical Frame work The two major concepts examined in this research are sales promotions and consumer impulsive buying behavior. The brief introduction to these concepts is as below: Consumer Buying Behavior. Buying behavior of people who purchase products for personal or household use and not for business purposes. Impulse buying An unplanned buying behavior resulting from a powerful urge to buy something immediately. 179 Routinized Response Behavior. A type of consumer problem solving process used when buying frequently purchased, low cost ietems that require very little search and decision effort. 178 Limited Problem Solving. A type of consumer problem solving process that buyers use when purchasing products occasionally or when they need information aboutan unfamiliar brand in a familiar product category.178 Extended Problem Solving. Type of consumer problem solving process employed when purchasing unfamiliar, expensive or infrequently bought products.178 Foundations of Marketing (2nd ed) 2007 Page 177 By William M. Pride, O. C. Ferrell Chapter 8: Consumer Buying Behavior, Publisher:Cengage Learning HYPOTHESIS H1: There is positive relationship between Sales promotions and consumer impulse buying behavior. H2: Female consumers are attracted more by sales promotions as compared to male consumers H3: Responsiveness to sales promotions is more in young consumers as compared to old consumers H4: Low income consumers are attracted more by sales promotions as compared to high income consumers Dependent Variable In our analysis, consumer impulse buying behavior is our dependent variable. Independent Variable Independent variable is Sales promotion. Relationship between Dependent and Independent Variable Consumer Impulse Buying Behavior Sales Promotion Independent Variable Dependent Variable Operational Definitions Sales Promotion- Short term incentives to encourage purchase or sales of a product or service (Kotler, Armstrong 1999). Dimensions of Sales Promotions Incentives- These are benefits given by retailer such as coupons, cash rebates, advertisement specialty; price packs (e.g. 50% off) to consumers. Offer Period- It is the lengths of time for which the consumer can avail the incentives given by retailers e.g. 3 month spring season offer, Eid offer, Ramzan offer etc. Return Policies- It is the money back guarantee or replacement of the products given by the retailer to increase the confidence of the consumer. Consumer Impulse Buying Behavior Impulse buying as when a consumer experiences a sudden, often powerful and persistent urge to buy something immediately. (Rook, Dennis and Stephen, 1985) Dimensions of Consumer Impulse Buying Behavior Income Level It plays an important role while determining the consumer impulse buying behavior as it helps the consumer to decide about the purchase of the product. Worth of the Product- It is the value of the product for consumer e.g. consumer impulse buying behavior is affected by the price packs given of those products which have worth for consumers. Tendency to Spend- It is the potency and likelihood in one self that he or she spends money irrationally. Research Design A research design according to Zikmund (1997), a master plan by which we specify the techniques and operations for collection and examination of the required information (p. 199). Choice of research The choice of research will be Causal Research which describes data and characteristics about the population or event being studied. It allows us to have greater understanding (Zikmund, 1997). Descriptive research tends to be very structured and strict for the collection of data (Stevens, Wrenn, Ruddick, Sherwood, 2000). The purpose of using this research is that it will help understanding the attitudes and behavior of customers, who are likely to respond towards the organizations undertaking a societal marketing campaign and hence, the degree to which societal marketing and corporate image are connected will be determined (Kinnear Taylor, 1996). Hence, this design is most suitable to examine the impact of societal marketing on customer behavior towards corporate image. Sampling Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the population, so that a study of the sample and understanding of its properties would make it possible for us to generalize such properties to the population element. Population. The population relevant to a study is described as a complete group of entities that share some common set of characteristics (Zikmund, 1997, p. 414). Target population is considered for this study was adult consumers with age 20-45+ years whose income range Rs.15000-55000+ available in the retail markets of Pakistan. The departmental stores and superstores offers a good place to find this kind of population. Sampling frame. The sampling frame in this study will be the customers visiting Makro, Metro and Hyperstar located in Lahore. Each customer in the store is a single member of the population and is defined as a sample unit (Zikmund, 1997). Sampling method. To understand how sales promotion affects the consumer impulse buying behavior a self administered survey was conducted at major super stores METRO, Makro and Hyperstar at Lahore. A probability sampling method has been used for analysis as all the customers Sample size. Data from 80 respondents was collected due to budget and times constraints. Instruments Sales promotion- A five-point Likert scale (Strongly Agree/Strongly Disagree) was adopted in the questionnaire. It contained 12 statements. Consumer impulse buying behavior- A five-point Likert scale (Strongly Agree/Strongly Disagree) was adopted in the questionnaire. It contained 13 statements. Statement 9 is more psychological in nature and statement i4 is a repeated statement, so it was dropped while analyzing data. REsults and Analysis 5.1 Reliability Analysis All questionnaires were valid for analysis as missing values were converted 3 (neither agree nor disagree). For a reliability check, the Cronbachs Alpha of each scale above 0.60 found, as shown in the following table. 6 Discussion From table 1 it can be interpret that measurement scale of sales promotion is 66.5% reliable and consumer impulse buying behavior is 69.5% reliable. Form table 2 it can be interpreted that the hypothesis is true and the two variables are positively correlated and level of significance is .005 for to tailed and confidence interval is 99%. Table 4 represents that while calculating regression Enter Method is used . From table 5 it is interpreted that Value of adjusted R2 (.099) shows the effect independent variable on dependent variable, remaining effect will be caused by other variables which are not the part of this study. Table 5 represents ANOVA summary also from this analysis significance is found .005.from table 6 the coefficient of independent variable sales promotion ÃŽÂ ²=0.334 have appositive effect on dependent variable consumer impulse buying behavior. Fig1 shows the regression line and variation can be seen through scattered points which are almost near the line.Fig2 show the pattern of data represented by histogram and the curve shows normal distribution pattern. 7 Conclusions Our study focused on understanding the relationship sales promotion to consumer impulse buying behavior. Charles and Michael (1982) proved in their research that cash discount can increase the customer buying behavior. Similarly Givon(1984) and kalwani (1992) proved their research of increasing sales through variety seeking behaviors , Morrison (1966) developed the relationship of buying behavior with consumer status ,and Blattberg (1978) same devlope relationship with buying behavior but with brand loyality ,Schneider and imran (1990) have found promotions to be associated with brand switching. So we got area to find significance relationship between sales promotion and consumer impulse bung behavior The answer to our research study concerning the relative strength of the retail environment in impulse purchases is deep this is not to say that if a retailer puts items on special display they will not generate impulsive purchases, they will. Our study makes a useful contribution to retailers understanding of impulsive buying behavior among consumers. 8 Limitations First, the data comes from a small panel and from a very small area whereas researchers gather data in forms of thousands. Second, while we have included the major gap that exists between variables to influence impulse buying behavior, there is the possibility that other unmeasured factors (e.g. time of day) also influence purchase decisions. Third Shortage of time was another limitation in this study. Due to which data collected was limited to very small area. Last but not least the respondents were very non-serious many questioners were found on which pattern of filling questionnaires found. 9 Future Implication The results of this study can be helpful for retailers. One of the major implications of this research is that retailers can increase sales by offering the right promotional tools to encourage product sale. So decision should carefully be planned. Promotions that emphasize in-store display, cash rebates, and price packs are likely to be more effective than coupons. Another fruitful area that a retailer must keep in mind that the promotion pattern should be regular or long lasting so that consumer perception can be improved .Giving short term incentives for temporary periods can cause low quality perception in consumer s which can effect impulse purchase To increase impulse purchase at store a wide range of competitors products can be helpful to encourage impulse purchase since consumer compare price level and a deep discount is attractive to them. Our research project is comprised to pilot study there is a great potential

evilmac Free Macbeth Essay - From Good to Evil in Shakespeares Macbeth :: GCSE Coursework Macbeth Essays

From Good to Evil in Macbeth A person could make a dramatic change of character when they go from a heart of good to a heart of evil. Macbeth is motivated to kill Duncan by Lady Macbeth, but Macbeth is then motivated by fate, and finally motivated by impulse to carry out his next succession of crimes. Macbeth had a hand, or was involved in 3 murders in the story. The first murder was of King Duncan at the beginning of the story with the aid and instructions of Lady Macbeth. The second murder was of Macbeth’s best friend Banquo, which Macbeth used the service of three murders to accomplish. It was fate for Macbeth to eliminate Banquo because Banquo was to be the father of kings while Macbeth would not. Finally, the third murder was of Macduff’s wife and children. One murderer does the job this time and Macbeth decides from this murder on to act on impulse and not think or feel remorse for any action he does from there on. All these murders indicate that Macbeth doesn’t know how to make things right after he has done something wrong, so he does the only thing he thinks is right, and that is to be more violent with each act he commits. When Macbeth is first introduced, the first impression that we have of him is that he was an incredible and worthy fighter and the King speaks very highly of him. An example of this is "O valiant cousin, worthy gentleman!" The phrase shows that Duncan is very proud of Macbeth, his soldier, and his cousin. In the witches prophecies, Macbeth was told he would be Thane of Glamis, Thane of Cawdor and then eventually become King. He was already Thane of Glamis and he becomes Thane of Cawdor shortly after the execution of the previous Thane, but one prophecy sticks in his mind. He is to become King. Macbeth had the thoughts of becoming King but there was no way he would ever think of murdering his King. He had neither the heart nor determination to do such a violent act. He expresses his discomfort with this in a soliloquy. "That tears shall down the wind. I have no spur to prick the sides of my intent, but only vaulting ambition, which o’erleaps itself, and falls on the other." Mac beth mentions he has no motive to do the deed.

Career Profile: Advertising Executive Essay -- Careers Jobs Marketing

Career Profile Task The career that I have chosen to profile is that of an Advertising Executive. Advertising professionals combine creativity with sound business sense to market a product based on financial, sociological, and psychological research. To ensure this complicated process works smoothly, advertisers spend a lot of time in the office (a six-day week is not unusual). Most of their time is spent brainstorming, creative blockbusting, and sifting through demographic research; less time is spent meeting with clients or pitching advertising campaigns. Fluidity of daily activity marks the life of the advertising executive who jumps from project to project. It takes a very disciplined person to handle both the creative end and the detail-oriented side. Advertising executives work in teams on projects, so working with others is crucial; those who are successful have the ability to add to other people’s ideas and help them grow. The need to be flexible can not be emphasized enough. As a number of large players in the industry move toward â€Å"computer-based brainstorming,†-a way in which creative ideas are kept in a fluid database without regard to account specificity-computer skills will become more valuable. Like most project-oriented careers, you can expect periods of intense activity during which you have little, if any, free time. At other times, the workload is light and mundane. Education / Training Requirements High-school preparation: Take lots of English courses. Any other writing-intensive courses are good as well. If your high school offers courses that will teach you how to use computer programs or, even better, how to create computer-based graphic art, take them, too. You'll probably be required to take a foreign language in college if you choose to major in Advertising. Plan accordingly. Lastly, and perhaps most importantly, Advertising majors almost universally involve some fairly challenging statistics courses. Consequently, if you ignore math in high school, you'll be in for a rude awakening. Degrees Possibly Required:  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Degree in Internet Marketing  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Degree in Marketing and/or Business Administration  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Journalism and/or editorial experience would be an asset  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  BA/BS  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Other specific degrees in relation to the type of advertising. (Example: Internet Advertising = Degree in Internet Advertising Skills... ...ne to make it better. I tell my family and friends about my ideas, and they love them! If I had an advertising account to complete, and I had a team of skilled designers, and conceptualists, I know that I could do the job pretty darn good. It takes an outgoing, creative, social, skilled person who likes to, and can work with others collaborating thoughts and ideas, to be an advertiser. Through all of my personality tests and self-evaluations, I have come to the conclusion that I am almost perfect for this job. I have an outgoing personality, I am creative, I enjoy working with others, I love creating great humour, and I LOVE designing things. I am also somewhat skilled at selling products and ideas, as well as negotiating (this must be hereditary, as my mother is blessed in this area). Bibliography: (March 2). Monster Job Search Website. [Online]. Available: http://www.monster.ca (March 3). Career Builder. [Online]. Available: http://www.careerbuilder.com (March 3). About.com. [Online]. Available: http://www.about.com (March 4). Google. [Online]. Available: http://www.google.com (March 6). The Princeton Review. [Online]. Available: http://www.princetonreview.com

Psychology and Personality Essay

The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology with an abundance of theoretical traditions. The major theories include dispositional trait perspective, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviorist, and social learning perspective. However, many researchers and psychologists do not explicitly identify themselves with a certain perspective and instead take an eclectic approach. Research in this area is empirically driven, such as dimensional models, based on multivariate statistics, such as factor analysis, or emphasizes theory development, such as that of the psychodynamic theory. There is also a substantial emphasis on the applied field of personality testing. In psychological education and training, the study of the nature of personality and its psychological development is usually reviewed as a prerequisite to courses in abnormal psychology or clinical psychology. Personality Paper Personality is connected with Darwin’s Theory of Evolution. It generally explains why there are personality differences between individuals.[ Schacter, Daniel; Gilbert, Daniel; Wegner, Daniel (2011).] Personality also refers to the pattern of thoughts, feelings, social adjustments, and behaviors consistently exhibited over time that strongly influences one’s expectations, self-perceptions, values, and attitudes. It also predicts human reactions to other people, problems, and stress.[ Winnie, J.F. & Gittinger, J.W. (1973)][ Krauskopf, C.J. & Saunders, D.R, (1994)] There is still no universal consensus on the definition of â€Å"personality† in psychology. Gordon Allport described two major ways to study personality: the nomothetic and the idiographic. Nomothetic psychology seeks general laws that can be applied to many different people, such as the principle of self-actualization or the trait of extraversion. Idiographic psychology is an attempt to understand the unique aspects of a particular individual. The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology with an abundance of theoretical traditions. The major theories include dispositional trait perspective, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviorist, and social learning perspective. However, many researchers and psychologists do not explicitly identify themselves with a certain perspective and instead take an eclectic approach. Research in this area is empirically driven, such as dimensional models, based on multivariate statistics, such as factor analysis, or emphasizes theory development, such as that of the psychodynamic theory. There is also a substantial emphasis on the applied field of personality testing. In psychological education and training, the study of the nature of personality and its psychological development is usually reviewed as a prerequisite to courses in abnormal psychology or clinical psychology. Perspectives of Personality Many of the ideas developed by historical and modern personality theorists stem from the basic philosophical assumptions they hold. The study of personality is not a purely empirical discipline, as it brings in elements of art, science, and philosophy to draw general conclusions. Freedom versus determinism This idea seeks to answer whether humans have control over their own behavior and understand the motives behind it or our behavior is causally determined by forces beyond our control. Behavior is categorized as being unconscious, environmental, or biological by various theories. [Engler, Barbara (2008)]. Heredity versus environment Personality is thought to be determined largely by genetics and biology, by environment and experiences, or by some combination resulting thereof. Contemporary research suggests that most personality traits are based on the joint influence of genetics and environment. One of the forerunners in this arena is C. Robert Cloninger, who pioneered the Temperament and Character model.[ Engler, Barbara (2008).] Uniqueness versus universality This is the argument discussing the extent of each human’s individuality Uniqueness or similarity in nature Universality. Gordon Allport, Abraham Maslow, and Carl Rogers were all advocates of the uniqueness of individuals. Behaviorists and cognitive theorists, in contrast, emphasize the importance of universal principles, such as reinforcement and self-efficacy.[ Engler, Barbara (2008).] Optimistic versus pessimistic Personality theories differ with regard to whether humans are integral in the changing of their own personalities. Theories that place a great deal of emphasis on learning are often more optimistic than those that do not. [Engler, Barbara (2008)]. Three Theories of Personality Development The study of personality is based on the essential insight that all people are similar in some ways, yet different in others.[ Phares, E.J.; Chaplin, W.F. (1997).] There have been many different definitions of personality proposed. However, many contemporary psychologists agree on the following definition: Personality is that pattern of characteristic thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguishes one person from another and that persists over time and situations. [Phares, E.J.; Chaplin, W.F. (1997)]. Trait theories According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association, personality traits are â€Å"enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts.† Theorists generally assume that a) traits are relatively stable over time, b) traits differ among individuals, and c) traits influence behavior. They consistently are used in order to help define people as a whole. Traits are relatively constant; they do not usually change. Traits are also bipolar; they vary along a continuum between one extreme and the other (e.g. friendly vs. unfriendly).[ Feist, Jess Feist, Gregory J. (2009).] Behaviorist theories Behaviorists explain personality in terms of the effects external stimuli have on behavior. The approaches used to analyze the behavioral aspect of personality are known as behavioral theories or learning-conditioning theories. These approaches were a radical shift away from Freudian philosophy. One of the major tenets of this concentration of personality psychology is a strong emphasis on scientific thinking and experimentation. Humanistic theories Humanistic psychology emphasizes that people have free will and that this plays an active role in determining how they behave. Humanistic therapy typically relies on the client for information of the past and its effect on the present, therefore the client dictates the type of guidance the therapist may initiate. This allows for an individualized approach to therapy. Personality Tests There are two major types of personality tests, projective and objective. Projective tests assume personality is primarily unconscious and assess an individual by how he or she responds to an ambiguous stimulus, such as an ink blot. Projective tests have been in use for about 60 years and continue to be used today. Objective tests assume personality is consciously accessible and measure it by self-report questionnaires. Research on psychological assessment has generally found objective tests are more valid and reliable than projective tests. Critics have pointed to the Forer effect to suggest some of these appear to be more accurate and discriminating than they really are. Issues within Testing Issues with these tests include, false reporting because there is no way to tell if an individual is answering a question honestly or accurately. Conclusion There are many theories on how a person develops a certain type of personality. A person’s personality is what defines them in all aspects of their life. People believe that you are molded into what you are today, but theories have proven that some people lead by example and some learn by example. If anyone is curious as to what type of personality they have, there are my types of assessments available to take that can tell you.

Human Resources Essay

Employees are always considered an asset to the organization. However organizations can never estimate what amount of this asset is required. Usually the number of employees is either higher than wanted or lower than wanted. Thus to cope up with either surpluses or shortages organizations have a number of methods that are as follows: To manage shortage of employees The first and foremost method to slash shortages is recruiting more permanent employees. This increases the number of workforce as required by the organization. However increasing new employees increases costs for the organization as well. Another method to overcome shortages is to retain employees within the organization who are retiring and offer them added incentives on a late retirement. Similarly another approach to lower down costs and still come over shortages can be to hire retired individuals again on a part time basis. This helps the organization to meet the shortage requirement in an efficient manner as no training is required and also the part time wages are low. Another approach can be to reduce turnovers by providing benefits such as premium pay etc. This is an effective way to retain old employees but can elicit a bidding war which the organization might not be able to control for a long time (Caruth, 1997). Over time and subcontracting is also a good way to deal with shortages. Sub contracting is an expensive procedure but obviously for a short time the company could afford to contract employees. Temporary hiring is also an option and is somewhat similar to sub contracting. Redesigning the job processes so that lesser employees are required is also a way to deal with shortages. This method though requires training so that employees adapt to the new job design and are comfortable with it and doesn’t result in heavier workloads and lowering down the talent level. To Manage Surplus of employees Surpluses are easier to manage then shortages. Stopping the hiring process, no replacements of those who leave, layoffs, offering early retirements etc are one of the most commonly used downsizing techniques (Mathis, 2004). Downsizing activities however have a negative effect on existing employee’s motivation and thus are usually avoided by most organizations. By introducing the shift system, number of hours worked can be reduced and efficiency of employees can be increased. Similarly, outsourcing or temporary employees shouldn’t be hired as there is already a surplus. To lower down costs, the company can either cut down pays across the board or switch to a variable pay plan (number of hours worked multiplied by per hour rate). In either way those with a lower pay or those who work lesser hours will prefer finding a new job that pays them more. Training is also a good way to deal with surpluses. Train half of the employees at a given time and let the other half work then train the later half and let the first half work. Though this is also something expensive and in the long run of no benefit to the organization. Voluntary severance is also another way in which you ask employees to volunteer if they want to leave the organization. Another way to utilize abundance of employees is by expanding operations. Though a firm cannot expand operations overnight nor it can expand them just to accommodate extra employees when there is no need of an expansion. Job Description My current job is as a sales and marketing executive at a technology corporation. I report directly to my sales and marketing director. The basic purpose of my job is to plan and carry out product activation and brand awareness activities in order to increase and sustain sales of my company. The core responsibilities of the job include developing and maintaining a database of customers and potential customers, to plan and carry out sales activities, develop new ideas, keep a track of sales performances, provide management with relevant information, frequently research on the market, the competitors and the customers in order to cope up with the changing needs, make connections with clients for business and organizational development, conduct training sessions to pass on my learning, skills and knowledge to my juniors. Apart from these I have to readily keep my colleagues up to date with all relevant information so that the department is on the same page in meetings or conferences. Communication is one of the foremost things in my job and I have to take care that relevant information reaches the pertaining individual on time. Redesigning the job description In order to redesign my job description following the exhibit I think the first thing that should be focused upon is that the job shouldn’t be monotonous as it is in the above mentioned case. The duties should vary from hard to difficult and from usual to unusual. Skill variety should be a basic part of it. This will lead to an increase of interest towards the job and thus will increase my motivation. My performance will also be definitely improved as I will be learning something different every time and this will be adding to my experience and skills. This will also alleviate the redundancy in my job to some extent (Tanke, 2000). One thing that I feel is lacking in my job is the power of making decisions on my own. As already mentioned I report to my director. At times he is not in the field and he does not have the true picture. In such cases a delay in decision making can be costly for the organization. Thus sales executives should be given the autonomy to at times make decision on their own which can benefit the company. Obviously everyone knows that wrong decision will result in losing the job. So every employee will definitely think for the best of the organization before taking any actions. Employee empowerment results in increasing employee confidence and provides them with new experiences particular to dealing with responsibilities. In turn, employees are satisfied with their jobs, feel a relationship with the organization and get a morale boost. One way to make an employee feel important is to provide feed back. Feedback tells the employee if their work is appreciated or not and in what areas they need to improve. If my director gets feed back from a client on any activity that I planned then it should be known to me as well. Apart from this there should be a little more flexibility in the management attitude so that they also understand that every employee has different needs (Tanke, 2000). Like my job could be more exciting if the management does not keep me sitting in the office just to fill in the hours an employee has to be on his seat. It would be beneficial for both if I am out in the field and monitoring and assisting in the sales activities. All these steps will definitely improve performance, motivation and satisfaction.